UPSC Key: Draft rules for labour codes, PRAGATI, and India’s thorium ambitions

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance.

Mains Examination: General Studies-II, III: Government policies and interventions for development in various sectors and issues arising out of their design and implementation, Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilisation of resources, growth, development and employment.

What’s the ongoing story: Not more than 48 hours of work in a week, night shift (7 pm to 6 am) for women, contract employment with gratuity even for those with one year term, are some of the key draft rules posted for public comments by the government under the four labour codes.

— Why were the new four labour codes introduced?

— Labour laws fall under which list of the Seventh schedule of the Indian Constitution?

— What are the key highlights of the four Labour Codes?

— How do the new labour codes impact different worker groups?

— How will the new Labour Codes affect formalisation and job creation, and what further regulatory reforms are needed?

— What benefits do the new codes bring for women employees? — What are the concerns related to these codes?

— The government has provided a 30-45 day window for public feedback on the draft rules for the four codes viz., Code on Wages, Code on Social Security, Industrial Relations Code, and Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions (OSH) Code.

— The final rules are likely to be notified in March. This will result in all labour code provisions coming into effect from April 1, the beginning of the next financial year, an official said. During the transition period, old rules will remain in force till the final notification of the new rules, the Ministry of Labour and Employment said separately in a set of FAQs.

— The government had notified all four labour codes in November this year after being cleared by Parliament five years ago. Earlier in 2020 and 2021, draft rules were floated for public comments but not notified.

— After weekly working hours of 48 hours come with a provision to separately notify daily working hours, intervals and spread over time. “No worker shall be required or allowed to work in an establishment for more than 48 hours in any week. The period of work in each day… with intervals and spread overs, shall be as notified by the Central Government,” the rules said.

— The rules also require Aadhaar-linked registration of every unorganised worker aged above 16 years, and a National Social Security Board for gig and platform workers.

— Under the draft rules for the OSH Code, the government has allowed for electronic application for single licence for contractors working in more than one state or for the whole country. The approval or disapproval has to be granted within 45 days.

— For women workers, who have been allowed to work in the night shift under the OSH Code beyond 7 PM and before 6 AM, the consent of the female employee has to be taken by the employers in writing, the rules said. Also, adequate transportation facilities have to be provided for pick-up and drop for such women employees at her residence in addition to safe and well-lit workspace.

— The Ministry also clarified the definition of wages under the labour codes. It said wages cover all remuneration — salaries, allowances or any other payment to a person employed. If the payments or allowances, other than basic pay, dearness allowance and retaining allowance, exceed 50 per cent of all remuneration, then the amount over 50 per cent will be added to ‘wages’.

— Performance-based incentives, employee stock option plans (ESOPs), variable or reimbursement-based payments to the employee will not be part of the wages, it said. Leave encashment will not be part of allowances, it added.

— On the clarification sought by industry regarding calculation of gratuity, the Ministry said gratuity will be applicable prospectively with effect from November 21, 2025, that is, the date of enforcement of the labour codes. The labour codes have introduced the concept of fixed-term employment, which allows the employment of workers for defined time periods based on demand and seasonality of the industry. Fixed-term employees, appointed for shorter terms, will be eligible for gratuity after 1 year of continuous service. Earlier, it was limited to permanent workers after 5 years of service.

— As per the draft rules, the minimum rate of wages will be fixed on a per day basis taking into account a standard four-member family and a net intake of 2,700 calories per day per member, and factoring in: house rent, fuel spend, children education, medical expenses. A technical committee will be set up by the government to fix the minimum wages.

— The four labour codes – Code of Wages (2019), Industrial Relations Code (2020), Code on Social Security (2020) and Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code (2020) – replaced 29 fragmented laws with a unified, modern framework.

— Notably, India’s old labour laws were too many, too complex, and outdated. They increased the compliance burden and discouraged businesses from hiring. Many workers, especially gig, platform, MSME, and migrant workers, had no uniform social security.

— Also, as labour is a Concurrent List subject, and while most states have finalised rules aligned with the four codes, central-level implementation was pending. This delay resulted in uneven social security coverage for workers and compliance complexity for employers operating across multiple states. Thus, the new labour codes are introduced to try to fix all this.

1. The Factories Act, 1881 was passed with a view to fix the wages of industrial workers and to allow the workers to form trade unions.

2. N.M. Lokhande was a pioneer in organizing the labour movement in British India.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(2) In India, which one of the following compiles information on industrial disputes, closures, retrenchments and lay-offs in factories employing workers? (UPSC CSE 2022)

Discuss the merits and demerits of the four ‘Labour Codes’ in the context of labour market reforms in India. What has been the progress so far in this regard? (UPSC CSE 2024)

Mains Examination: General Studies-III: Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilisation of resources, growth, development and employment.

What’s the ongoing story: Chicago-based Clean Core Thorium Energy (CCTE), only the second American company to have bagged an export licence from the US Department of Energy to sell nuclear technology to India in nearly two decades, will partner NPTC Ltd, the country’s largest power utility, in the development of thorium as an alternative to uranium for fuelling nuclear reactors.

— What is the status of Thorium reserve in India? — What is India’s three-stage Nuclear Power Programme?

— How are Thorium and Uranium used in nuclear energy production?

— What are the challenges in the use of Thorium for nuclear energy production?

— The Board of state-owned NTPC is learnt to have cleared a minority equity investment in CCTE in a strategic early stage participation effort in this niche area, which could potentially mark another step toward closer cooperation between India and the US on atomic energy at a time when bilateral trade relations are still in a limbo.

— The NTPC stake infusion proposal is subject to clearances from the Ministry of Power. The minority investment by NTPC, sources said, is aligned with its objective of setting up 30GWe (giga watt electric) of atomic energy capacity by 2047 and exploring an entry into the nuclear fuel cycle in a way that it aligns with India’s broader strategic objectives in the nuclear sector.

— The move also signifies the government’s plan to explore the deployment of a thorium-based fuel for India’s existing fleet of Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs), which could, in turn, help buttress the country’s energy and fuel security.

— Earlier in December, Parliament had passed the Sustainable Harnessing and Advancement of Nuclear Energy for Transforming India (SHANTI) Act, 2025, which marked a major shift in how India’s tightly-controlled nuclear power sector will be governed in the coming years.

— For the first time, the legislation enables private players to enter the operations side of this critical sector, including the possibility of foreign participation in the future. It also envisages a role for private entities in areas such as fuel management, which had remained under tight public-sector control for decades.

— Thorium, the radioactive metallic element named after the Norse god, has been a long standing hope for India’s true energy security. It has been touted as an alternative to uranium since 1954 by India’s policymakers because it’s more abundant, produces lesser amounts of long-lived radioactive waste (that have a long half life) and potentially lowers the proliferation risk.

— For India, which has little uranium reserves but has abundant deposits of thorium, the latter has been part of a long-term strategy for reducing dependence on imported nuclear fuels.

— While thorium deployment has been predicated on the idea of new reactors being designed in the last leg of India’s 3-stage nuclear programme to run on this fuel, which could entail reconstructing the country’s nuclear power fleet from the ground up.

— Clean Core’s new fuel, called ANEEL or Advanced Nuclear Energy for Enriched Life, can be potentially deployed in the country’s PHWRs at scale. The combination of thorium with small amounts of enriched uranium and the promise of its use in existing or new PHWR reactors promises to enhance India’s energy security by using domestically available thorium, and improving safety and proliferation resistance. It could also significantly reduce nuclear waste.

— Earlier, on March 26, the DoE had cleared New Jersey-based Holtec International’s application for specific authorisation with respect to the restrictive regulation that is referred to as “10CFR810” (Part 810 of Title 10, Code of Federal Regulations of the US Atomic Energy Act of 1954) for transfer of technology to Indian entities.

— According to nuclear scientist Anil Kakodkar, given that India is able to build large PHWR capacity with imported uranium as fuel, the country has the possibility of using this reactor capacity for conversion of thorium to fissile uranium through irradiation of thorium along with HALEU uranium fuel combination in the country’s PHWRs at scale.

— This enables the launch of the thor­ium phase (the third phase of India’s three-stage nuclear programme) earlier, without having to wait for build-up of required fast breeder reactor capacity in the second phase. PHWRs comprise the first phase of the 3-stage programme.

— The used fuel from these PHWRs, the mainstay of India’s nuclear power programme, can then be recycled to set up additional power generation capacity, including through the new-age molten salt reactors or MSRs (nuclear fission reactor with molten salt as coolant or fuel). This will enable faster energy independence from imported nuclear fuel, Kakodkar told The Indian Express.

— The world over, most leading nuclear players such as the US, Russia, France and South Korea specialise in building light water reactors or LWRs, where normal water is used as coolant and moderator. While the SHANTI Act opens the door for LWR-based imported reactors to be set up, leveraging existing PHWRs does present itself as an important diversification from the import risk.

— The Department of Atomic Energy’s 3-stage power programme envisages a pathway to utilising India’s abundant thorium reserves – found in coastal sands on the beaches of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat, and in the inland riverine sands of Jharkhand and West Bengal – to generate electricity. The second stage of the 3-stage plan involves the Fast Breeder Reactors or FBRs, where operational progress has been slow.

— Pressurised heavy-water reactors are said to be more suited to handling thorium because heavy water – an isotope of water that has an extra neutron on the hydrogen atom – absorbs fewer neutrons during the fission process, increasing the efficiency of the fission reaction by allowing more neutrons to be absorbed by the thorium.

— Currently, there are over 45 PHWRs operating worldwide: 19 in India, 17 in Canada, three each in Argentina and South Korea, and two each in China and Romania, according to International Atomic Energy Agency data.

→ STAGE 1: Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) use natural uranium-based fuels to generate electricity, while producing fissile plutonium (Pu239), which can be extracted by reprocessing the spent fuel. It uses heavy water (deuterium oxide) both as a coolant and moderator. The programme has been supplemented by the construction of imported Light Water Reactors (LWRs).

→ STAGE 2: It involves setting up Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs) of the kind at Kalpakkam, using plutonium-based fuels, which can enhance nuclear power capacity, and convert fertile thorium into fissile uranium (U233). Reprocessing of the spent fuel is vital for efficient utilisation of the plutonium inventory.

→ STAGE 3: The third stage will be based on the ThU233 cycle. U233 produced in the second stage can be used for the third stage of the power programme, which consists of advanced thermal and fast breeder reactors, for long-term energy security. The Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) is proposed for this. Now, the use of molten salt reactors is also seen as an option.

— The FBR is an important milestone for getting to the third stage, paving the way for the eventual full utilisation of the country’s thorium. The core loading process of India’s first indigenous Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR) at Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu, has started in March 2024.

(3) In India, why are some nuclear reactors kept under “IAEA safeguards” while others are not? (UPSC CSE 2020)

With growing energy needs should India keep on expanding its nuclear energy programme? Discuss the facts and fears associated with nuclear energy. (UPSC CSE 2018)

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national importance, Polity and Governance.

Mains Examination: General Studies-II: Government policies and interventions for development in various sectors, important aspects of governance, transparency and accountability, e-governance- applications, models, successes, limitations, and potential; transparency & accountability and institutional and other measures.

What’s the ongoing story: Prime Minister Narendra Modi on Wednesday stressed on the mantra of reform, perform and transform at the 50th meeting of PRAGATI, which accelerated projects worth more than Rs 85 lakh crore over the past decade.

— What is the PRAGATI (Pro-Active Governance and Timely Implementation) platform?

— What are the benefits of the PM-SHRI scheme? — What is the significance of PRAGATI ?

— How PRAGATI has transformed the infrastructure projects in India?

— What is cooperative federalism?

— What are the benefits of using technology for the monitoring of infrastructure projects and schemes?

— Discuss the PRAGATI platform as a case study in eliminating bureaucratic red-tapism.

— What are the various steps taken by the government to transform governance?

— Chairing the meeting, the prime minister emphasised the use of technology in each and every phase of a project life cycle.

— The Pro-Active Governance and Timely Implementation (PRAGATI) platform must be strengthened further in the years ahead to ensure faster execution, higher quality and measurable outcomes for the citizens, he said.

— During the meeting, the PM reviewed five critical infrastructure projects across sectors, including road, railways, power, water resources, and coal. “These projects span five states, with a cumulative cost of more than Rs 40,000 crore,” an official statement said.

— It was said that during a review of the PM SHRI scheme, Modi emphasised that the initiative must become a national benchmark for holistic and future-ready school education with outcome-orientated rather than infrastructure-centric implementation. He also asked all the chief secretaries to closely monitor the PMSHRI scheme. The PM further emphasised that efforts must be made for making the PM SHRI schools benchmarks for other schools of the state governments.

— PRAGATI is essential to sustain the reform momentum and ensure delivery, Modi said. On the occasion, the PM shared clear expectations for the next phase, outlining his vision of reform, perform and transform.“Reform to simplify, perform to deliver, transform to impact,” the PM said. He said that reform must mean moving from process to solutions, simplifying procedures and making systems more friendly for ‘ease of living’ and ‘ease of doing business’.

— He added that outcome-driven governance has strengthened through PRAGATI, and it must now go deeper. Transformation must be measured by what citizens actually feel about timely services, faster grievance resolution, and improved ease of living, Modi said.

— He also said that long-pending projects have been completed in the national interest using the PRAGATI platform. PRAGATI exemplifies cooperative federalism and breaks silo-based functioning, the prime minister added. At the 50th PRAGATI meeting, the PM described the milestone as a symbol of the deep transformation India has witnessed in the culture of governance over the last decade.

— PRAGATI was launched in 2015 by Prime Minister Narendra Modi. It combines leadership with video conferencing, drone feeds, and data management to enable oversight of critical infrastructure.

— The platform’s impact has helped complete long-delayed projects like segments of National Highway 8 in Maharashtra, the Chenab Bridge in Jammu and Kashmir, which is now the world’s highest rail bridge, and the Bogibeel Bridge in Assam, which had languished for more than a decade before being completed within three years of coming under review in PRAGATI.

— The Centre’s PM-SHRI scheme was approved in 2022. It seeks to develop 14,500 schools to “showcase” aspects of the NEP 2020. These schools are to be “exemplars” for other schools in their region. The scheme is for existing elementary, secondary, and senior secondary schools run by the central government and state and local governments across the country.

Preliminary Examination: Economic and Social Development – Sustainable Development, Poverty, Inclusion, Demographics, Social Sector Initiatives, etc.

What’s the ongoing story: After a first round of strikes on Christmas day that saw some impact on operations, delivery workers of companies such as Swiggy, Zomato, Blinkit and Zepto went on a second wave of strikes on New Year’s eve, calling for a ban on 10-minute deliveries.

— What are the provisions related to gig workers in the New Labour Code?

— What are the challenges faced by the gig workers?

— What are the concerns related to 10-minute delivery models?

— What are the various initiatives related to gig workers? — What is the significance of gig economy?

— In a letter to Union Labour Minister Mansukh Mandaviya, the Indian Federation of App-based Transport Workers (IFAT) — the key union behind the strikes — has called for a ban on unsafe 10-minute delivery models, fair and transparent wages, regulation of the companies under the recently notified labour codes, and recognition of their right to organise and collectively bargain, among other things.

— The strikes mark the latest flashpoint in the rising conflict between delivery workers and platform companies after years of brimming discontent. As companies and lawmakers have romanticised the concept of firms offering “gig” work to people becoming an attractive avenue for employment, workers at these firms have been, for long, silently fighting many battles.

— With an uncertain income, a low base pay, algorithms that they say pushes them to ride for hundreds of kilometres a day in return for disproportionately low cash, compounded by rising fuel costs, no social security benefits, and a faceless management, the money left in their hand at the end of each month is on a steady decline.

— The 10-minute delivery model, implemented by companies such as Blinkit, Swiggy and Zepto, has also added speed into the mixture, as workers rush to complete deliveries within a stipulated time.

— Earlier this year, the government notified the Code on Social Security, bringing gig and platform workers under a formal welfare framework for the first time. It enables their registration on a national database and opens access to schemes covering health, disability, accident insurance and old-age support. It  aims to give millions of workers basic protections despite their non-traditional employment structure.

— Under the Code on Social Security, 2020, ‘gig workers’, ‘platform workers’, and ‘aggregators’ have been defined for the first time, as a person who performs work outside of the traditional employer-employee relationship. It envisions the creation of a Social Security Fund for gig and platform workers with contribution from Central and state governments, corporate social responsibility, fines collected due to compounding, etc.

— Aggregators such as Amazon, Flipkart, Swiggy and Zomato will have to contribute 1–2 per cent of their annual turnover towards this fund, with the total contribution capped at 5 per cent of the amount payable by them to the workers.

— A survey of 205 gig-platform workers in Pune highlighting income insecurity, health risks and lack of social protection was released on the occasion of Human Rights Day during a public dialogue titled ‘Challenges and Interventions for Gig-Platform Workers’ organised by the Rubal Foundation at Patrakar Bhavan.

— The study also pointed to rising health risks, low levels of legal awareness and the near absence of worker unions. As many as 92 per cent reported gig work as their sole source of livelihood, while 62 per cent said they had no formal agreement or written contract with the platforms they work for. The survey further revealed that only 12 per cent of workers were fully aware of labour laws and workplace safety provisions, highlighting widespread legal vulnerability.

(5) With reference to casual workers employed in India, consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2021)

1. All casual workers are entitled for Employees Provident Fund coverage.

2. All casual workers are entitled for regular working hours and overtime payment.

3. The government can by a notification specify that an establishment or industry shall pay wages only through its bank account.

Which of the above statements are correct?

Examine the role of ‘Gig Economy’ in the process of empowerment of women in India. (UPSC CSE 2021)

Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international importance, Economic development.

Mains Examination: General Studies-I, II, III: Distribution of key natural resources across the world (including South Asia and the Indian sub-continent);Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests, Science and Technology.

What’s the ongoing story: Copper prices recorded a fresh all-time high in December, with the benchmark price climbing to over $12,000 per tonne on the London Metal Exchange (LME). The metal has surged over 35% this year, marking its biggest annual jump since 2009.

— Why is copper considered a critical material for modern technologies?

— What are the factors behind the record high copper prices?

— How have US tariff measures impacted global copper prices?

— How is the expansion of artificial intelligence driving copper demand?

— What are the major copper mines worldwide? — Map work: Locate major copper mines worldwide.

— Although copper has been on an upward trajectory for much of the year,​ ​its spike in recent weeks has pushed prices beyond most market forecasts for 2025.

— Copper is essential to the modern economy, with uses ranging from housing and manufacturing to power grids, clean energy, artificial intelligence and defence. Thus, it is often seen as a barometer of economic health. A rise in copper prices is considered a signal of robust economic growth, while falling prices tend to raise concerns about an economic slowdown.

— This is why the latest rally has raised eyebrows. The surge is coming at a time when global economic growth is steady but far from strong.

— While a combination of factors is responsible, the global trade disruptions resulting from US President Donald Trump’s tariffs have been a key driver. In August, President Trump imposed a 50% tariff on semi-finished and derivative copper imports, prompting US buyers to stockpile the metal ahead of the tariff’s implementation on August 1.

— The possibility that refined copper — thus far exempt from these duties — could potentially be subject to these tariffs has been a key driver of the copper price rise this year. US buyers have aggressively purchased and stockpiled copper reserves in warehouses, steadily building up their inventories, to avoid facing potentially higher costs.

— These tariff expectations have also created arbitrage opportunities in the market, Bloomberg reported last week. An arbitrage opportunity arises when the same commodity is priced differently in two markets. Copper is traded on multiple exchanges, including the London Metal Exchange (LME) and US markets such as COMEX. When prices are lower in one market and higher in another, traders can buy copper in the cheaper market and sell it simultaneously in the more expensive one, profiting from the price gap.

— Another key factor is the tightening supply caused by disruptions at some major copper mines worldwide. A series of accidents in major mines in Indonesia, Chile, and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) has curtailed global output.

— In September, a mudslide struck Indonesia’s Grasberg mine, the world’s second-largest copper mine, forcing the operator to declare force majeure. The mine remains shut and is unlikely to return to full production before 2027. In July, a major rock blast brought operations to a halt at a copper mine in Chile, while seismic activity triggered severe underground flooding at one of the world’s most important copper mines in the DRC this May.

— Together, these disruptions have significantly squeezed global copper supply at a time when demand is rising sharply, driven in part by the rapid expansion of artificial intelligence and the resulting proliferation of data centres worldwide.

— The transition to clean mobility is also adding to copper demand. Electric vehicles use more than twice the amount used by conventional cars. While a conventional car requires about 22.3 kg of copper, an electric vehicle needs around 53.2 kg per vehicle, according to the International Energy Agency (IEA). Further, the global push for power grid infrastructure expansion and the energy transition is also driving a significant surge in copper demand.

— Apart from supply constraints, a weakening US dollar has also added upward pressure on copper prices. The dollar has been softening amid growing expectations that the US Federal Reserve will begin cutting interest rates next year. Lower interest rates typically reduce the dollar’s appeal, causing it to weaken against other currencies. Since copper is priced in US dollars, expectations of a weaker dollar tend to push up dollar-denominated copper prices.

— Copper is listed as a critical mineral in India. Domestic ore production in 2023-24 was 3.78 million tonnes (mt), 8% lower than in 2018-19.

— While India has large copper deposits, they require extensive exploration before mining can commence. Globally it takes up to 17 years on average to operationalise a copper mine.

— To meet demand in the short term, India has been looking to secure both greenfield and brownfield mineral assets in copper-rich countries such as Zambia, Chile, and the DRC. Deposits in these countries are typically of higher grade than in India.

(6) With reference to the mineral resources of India, consider the following pairs: (UPSC CSE 2010)

Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

Mains Examination: General Studies-II: Government policies and interventions for development in various sectors and issues arising out of their design and implementation.

What’s the ongoing story: Shashi Tharoor writes: As the curtain rises on 2026, the global landscape resembles less a cohesive portrait gallery of national foreign policies and more a jagged mosaic of competing interests protruding into one another. The stage reveals the world at an inflection point: Geopolitical turbulence, AI- and tariff-driven economic uncertainty, and climate urgency are all reshaping the global order.

— What were the key international issues that were in focus last year from India’s perspective?

— What is the National Critical Mineral Mission? — What are the major global initiatives started by India?

— What were the major economic issues of the last year?

— What are the new economic, social, and international issues to look for in 2026?

— From the vantage point of New Delhi, 2025 was the year India truly tested the resilience of its “multi-alignment” strategy, proving that a nation can indeed be a “friend to all” while remaining beholden to none.

— When China throttled the export of critical rare earth minerals in April, the ripple effects threatened the very heart of India’s “green transition” and its burgeoning electric vehicle industry; and when President Donald Trump imposed 50 per cent tariffs on India’s exports, the bottom fell out of the US market for most of India’s labour-intensive industries.

— Yet, India’s response signalled a new confidence: Redoubling negotiations for free trade agreements with an impressive variety of partners, from the UK to New Zealand (and taking in the European Union and Oman in between), diversifying markets and extending support to exporters.

— By fast-tracking the National Critical Mineral Mission and deepening partnerships with the “Mineral Security Partnership” (MSP) alongside the US and Australia, New Delhi demonstrated that strategic autonomy in 2025 is synonymous with supply-chain resilience.

— On the economic front, the year was a study in contrasts. While the return of protectionist rhetoric and negative tariff surprises from Washington created significant pressure on the rupee, India’s domestic fundamentals remained remarkably buoyant.

— Even as the IMF adjusted the timeline for the $5-trillion milestone to 2028-29, India’s position as the world’s fourth-largest economy — nudging past Japan this year — is a testament to a “golden period” of structural reform. We cannot be complacent amidst global turbulence, but we don’t need to be “tariffied” either.

— Geopolitical instability underscored the fragility of the international system and highlighted the importance of multi-alignment. New Delhi has deepened ties with the Global South while balancing relations with Washington, Moscow, and Beijing.

— Simultaneously, the 15th India-Japan Annual Summit in August and the launch of the Africa-India Key Maritime Engagement (AIKEYME) naval exercise signalled India’s intent to lead as a “vishwa bandhu”.

— By positioning itself as the voice of the Global South at COP 30 in Brazil, India championed equitable climate action, demanding that developed nations move beyond targets toward the actual delivery of predictable support.

— India’s leadership in the International Solar Alliance gained traction, as global demand for clean energy surged. Yet, India continues a tightrope walk: Coal dependency persists, even as solar and wind investments expand, reflecting the tension between growth and sustainability.

— However, the most profound challenge of 2025 for many developing countries remained the “Digital Iron Curtain”. As global giants dominate the World Wide Web and the internet splinters into sovereign fragments, India has begun to pioneer a unique “tech-diplomacy” footprint.

— By exporting the “India Stack” and linking the UPI payment network with partners from the UAE to Nepal, New Delhi is offering a democratic, transparent alternative to the opaque digital architectures of its rivals. In this low-trust environment, India has realised that providing public goods to the world is the most effective way to build the trust that traditional geopolitics currently lacks.

— Technology has been a defining force of 2025, as AI accelerated its impact on labour markets and energy systems. India, with its vast IT workforce, is both vulnerable and poised to capitalise.

— At home, we must invest in reskilling, education, and inclusive digital ecosystems. The challenge lies in ensuring inclusive growth, preventing a widening gap between urban tech elites and the rural poor.

— As we look towards 2026, the phenomenon of interdependence without trust continues. India has shown that the path forward is not to retreat from the world, but to engage with a clear vision that prioritises national interest without abandoning global responsibility. The task is not simple: To navigate these inflection points with prudence, ambition, and inclusivity.

— On 29th January, the government approved a Rs 16,300-crore National Critical Minerals Mission (NCMM) to promote the exploration of critical minerals within the country and at offshore locations. The NCMM will encompass all stages of the value chain, including mineral exploration, mining, beneficiation, processing, and recovery from end-of-life products.

— The ISA is a collaborative initiative between India and France aimed at uniting efforts to combat climate change by implementing solar energy solutions. It was conceptualized on the side lines of COP21 in Paris in 2015.

If the last few decades were Asia’s growth story, the next few are expected to be of Africa’s.” In the light of this statement, examine India’s influence in Africa in recent years. (UPSC CSE 2021)

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